Zoroaster
Zoroaster, also known as Zarathustra, Zarathushtra Spitama or Ashu Zarathushtra was an ancient spiritual leader who founded what is now known as . His teachings challenged the existing traditions of the and inaugurated a movement that eventually became the dominant religion in . He was a native speaker of and lived in the eastern part of the , but his exact birthplace is uncertain. There is no scholarly consensus on when he lived. However, approximating using linguistic and socio-cultural evidence allows for dating to somewhere in the second millennium BCE. This is done by estimating the period in which the (as well as the earlier and languages and the related ) were spoken, the period in which when the was practiced, and correlation between the burial practice described in the with the archeological . However, other scholars still date him in the 7th and 6th century BCE as a near-contemporary of and . Zoroastrianism eventually became the official religion of and its distant from the 6th century BCE to the 7th century CE. Zoroaster is credited with authorship of the Gathas as well as the , hymns composed in his native dialect, Old Avestan, and which comprise the core of Zoroastrian thinking. Most of his life is known from these texts. By any modern standard of historiography, no evidence can place him into a fixed period, and the historicization surrounding him may be a part of a trend from before the 10th century that historicizes legends and myths. Name and etymology Zoroaster's name in his native language, , was probably Zaraϑuštra. His English name, "Zoroaster", derives from a later (5th century BCE) transcription, Zōroastrēs ( ), as used in 's (Fragment 32) and in 's (122a1). This form appears subsequently in the Latin and, in later Greek orthographies, as Ζωροάστρις Zōroastris. The Greek form of the name appears to be based on a phonetic transliteration or semantic substitution of Avestan zaraϑ-'' with the Greek ζωρός ''zōros (literally "undiluted") and the Avestan ''-uštra'' with ἄστρον astron (" "). In Avestan, Zaraϑuštra is generally accepted to derive from an Old Iranian *Zaratuštra-''; The element half of the name (-uštra-'') is thought to be the Indo-Iranian root for "camel", with the entire name meaning "he who can manage camels". Reconstructions from later Iranian languages—particularly from the (300 BCE) Zardusht, which is the form that the name took in the 9th- to 12th-century Zoroastrian texts—suggest that *Zaratuštra-'' might be a form of ''*Zarantuštra-''. Subject then to whether ''Zaraϑuštra derives from *Zarantuštra-'' or from ''*Zaratuštra-'', several interpretations have been proposed. If ''Zarantuštra is the original form, it may mean "with old/aging camels", related to zarant-'' (''cf. zōṛ and zœrond, "old"; Middle Persian zāl, "old"): * "with angry/furious camels": from Avestan *zarant-'', "angry, furious". * "who is driving camels" or "who is fostering/cherishing camels": related to Avestan ''zarš-'', "to drag". * Mayrhofer (1977) proposed an etymology of "who is desiring camels" or "longing for camels" and related to ''har-'', "to like", and perhaps (though ambiguous) also to Avestan ''zara-''. * "with yellow camels": parallel to younger Avestan ''zairi-''. The interpretation of the ''-ϑ-'' ( ) in Avestan ''zaraϑuštra was for a time itself subjected to heated debate because the ''-ϑ-'' is an irregular development: As a rule, *zarat-'' (a first element that ends in a ) should have Avestan ''zarat-'' or ''zarat̰-'' as a development from it. Why this is not so for ''zaraϑuštra has not yet been determined. Notwithstanding the phonetic irregularity, that Avestan zaraϑuštra with its ''-ϑ-'' was linguistically an actual form is shown by later attestations reflecting the same basis. All present-day, Iranian-language variants of his name derive from the Middle Iranian variants of Zarϑošt, which, in turn, all reflect Avestan's fricative ''-ϑ-''. In , the name is ������������ Zardu(x)št, in Zarhušt, in Zrdrwšt, in Zardušt, and in modern (New ), the name is زرتشت Zartosht. Date There is no consensus on the dating of Zoroaster, the Avesta gives no direct information about it, while historical sources are conflicting. Some scholars base their date reconstruction on the and , and thus it is considered to have been some place in northeastern Iran and some time between 1500 and 500 BCE. Some scholars such as (who dated Zoroaster to somewhere between 1700–1000 BCE) used linguistic and socio-cultural evidence to place Zoroaster between 1500 and 1000 BCE (or 1200 and 900 BCE). The basis of this theory is primarily proposed on linguistic similarities between the of the Zoroastrian and the of the (c. 1700–1100 BCE), a collection of early Vedic hymns. Both texts are considered to have a common archaic Indo-Iranian origin. The Gathas portray an ancient - bipartite society of warrior-herdsmen and priests (compared to Bronze ; some conjecture that it depicts the ), and thus it is implausible that the Gathas and Rigveda could have been composed more than a few centuries apart. These scholars suggest that Zoroaster lived in an isolated tribe or composed the Gathas before the 1200–1000 BCE migration by the Iranians from the steppe to the . The shortfall of the argument is the vague comparison, and the archaic language of Gathas does not necessarily indicate time difference. Other scholars propose a period between 7th and 6th century, for example, c. 650–600 BCE or 559–522 BCE. The latest possible date is the mid 6th century, at the time of 's , or his predecessor . This date gains credence mainly on the thesis that certain figures must be based on historical facts, thus some have related the mythical with Darius I's father Vishtaspa (or in Greek) with the account on Zoroaster's life. However, in the Avesta it should not be ignored that Vishtaspa's son became the ruler of the Persian Empire, Darius I would not neglect to include his patron-father in the . A different proposed conclusion is that Darius I's father was named in honor of the Zoroastrian patron, indicating possible Zoroastrian faith by . Classical scholarship in the 6th to 4th century BCE believed he existed six thousand years before invasion of Greece in 480 BCE ( , , , ), which is a possible misunderstanding of the Zoroastrian four cycles of 3000 years i.e. 12,000 years. This belief is recorded by , and variant readings could place it six hundred years before Xerxes I, somewhere before 1000 BCE. However, Diogenes also mentions belief that Zoroaster lived five thousand years before the , which would mean he lived around 6200 BCE. The 10th-century , provides a date of "500 years before " in the late 10th century BCE. cited Eudoxus who also placed his death six thousand years before Plato, c. 6300 BCE. Other pseudo-historical constructions are those of who recorded Zaratas the ean to have taught in , or lived at the time of mythological and . According to Pliny the Elder, there were two Zoroasters. The first lived thousands of years ago, while the second accompanied Xerxes I in the invasion of Greece in 480 BCE. Some scholars propose that the chronological calculation for Zoroaster was developed by Persian in the 4th century BCE, and as the early Greeks learned about him from the Achaemenids, this indicates they did not regard him as a contemporary of Cyrus the Great, but as a remote figure. Some later pseudo-historical and Zoroastrian sources (the , which references a date "258 years before Alexander") place Zoroaster in the 6th century BCE, which coincided with the accounts by from 4th century CE. The traditional Zoroastrian date originates in the period immediately following 's conquest of the in 330 BCE. The rulers who gained power following Alexander's death instituted an "Age of Alexander" as the new calendrical epoch. This did not appeal to the Zoroastrian priesthood who then attempted to establish an "Age of Zoroaster". To do so, they needed to establish when Zoroaster had lived, which they accomplished by (erroneous, some even identified Cyrus with Vishtaspa) counting back the length of successive generations, until they concluded that Zoroaster must have lived "258 years before Alexander". This estimate then re-appeared in the 9th- to 12th-century Arabic and Pahlavi texts of Zoroastrian tradition, like the 10th century who cited a prophecy from a lost Avestan book in which Zoroaster foretold the Empire's destruction in three hundred years, but the religion would last for a thousand years. Place head of a priest wearing a distinctive n-style headdress, , , , 3rd–2nd century BCE}} The birthplace of Zoroaster is also unknown, and the language of the Gathas is not similar to the proposed north-western and north-eastern regional dialects of Persia. It is also suggested that he was born in one of the two areas and later lived in the other area. Yasna 9 and 17 cite the Ditya River in ( Ērān Wēj) as Zoroaster's home and the scene of his first appearance. The (both Old and Younger portions) does not mention the Achaemenids or of any West Iranian tribes such as the , , or even ns. However, the , to which Zoroaster belonged, is mentioned, along with other Vedic persons, such as (Vahishta) and ( ), the ancestors of sage Atharvan. The refers to some Iranian peoples that are unknown in the Greek and Achaemenid sources about the 6th and 5th century BCE Eastern Iran. The contain seventeen regional names, most of which are located in north-eastern and eastern Iran. However, in Yasna 59.18, the zaraϑuštrotema, or supreme head of the Zoroastrian priesthood, is said to reside in 'Ragha' ( ). In the 9th- to 12th-century Middle Persian texts of Zoroastrian tradition, this 'Ragha' and with many other places appear as locations in Western Iran. While the land of Media does not figure at all in the Avesta (the westernmost location noted in scripture is ), the , or "Primordial Creation," (20.32 and 24.15) puts Ragha in (medieval ). However, in Avestan, Ragha is simply a toponym meaning "plain, hillside." Apart from these indications in sources that are open to interpretations, there are a number of other sources. The Greek and Latin sources are divided on the birthplace of Zarathustra. There are many Greek accounts of Zarathustra, referred usually as Persian or Perso-Median Zoroaster; located him in , placed him among Ariaspai (in ), and suggest east of whereas and suggest west of Iran as his birthplace. Moreover, they have the suggestion that there has been more than one Zoroaster. On the other hand, in post-Islamic sources (1086–1153) an writer originally from Shahristān, present-day , proposed that Zoroaster's father was from (also in Medea) and his mother was from . Coming from a reputed scholar of religions, this was a serious blow for the various regions who all claimed that Zoroaster originated from their homelands, some of which then decided that Zoroaster must then have then been buried in their regions or composed his Gathas there or preached there. Also Arabic sources of the same period and the same region of historical Persia consider as the birthplace of Zarathustra. By the late 20th century, most scholars had settled on an origin in eastern . Gnoli proposed , (though in a much wider scope than the present-day province) as the homeland of Zoroastrianism; Frye voted for and ; Khlopin suggests the Tedzen Delta in present-day . Sarianidi considered the region as "the native land of the Zoroastrians and, probably, of Zoroaster himself." Boyce includes the s to the west from the . The medieval "from Media" hypothesis is no longer taken seriously, and Zaehner has even suggested that this was a Magi-mediated issue to garner legitimacy, but this has been likewise rejected by Gershevitch and others. The 2005 article on the history of Zoroastrianism summarizes the issue with "while there is general agreement that he did not live in western Iran, attempts to locate him in specific regions of eastern Iran, including Central Asia, remain tentative". Life .}} Zoroaster is recorded as the son of Pourušaspa of the Spitamans or Spitamids (Avestan spit mean "brilliant" or "white"; some argue that Spitama was a remote progenitor) family, and Dugdōw, while his great-grandfather was Haēčataspa. All the names appear appropriate of the nomadic tradition, as his father's means "possessing gray horses" (with the word aspa meaning horse), while his mother's is "milkmaid". According to the tradition, he had four brothers, two older and two younger, whose names are given in much later work. The training for priesthood probably started very early around seven years of age. He became a priest probably around the age of fifteen, and according to Gathas, he gained knowledge from other teachers and personal experience from traveling when left his parents at twenty years old. By the age of thirty, he experienced a revelation during a spring festival; on the river bank he saw a shining Being, who revealed himself as (Good Purpose) and taught him about (Wise Lord) and five other radiant figures. Zoroaster soon became aware of the existence of two primal Spirits, the second being (Destructive Spirit), with opposing concepts of (order) and (deception). Thus he decided to spend his life teaching people to seek Asha. He received further revelations and saw a vision of the seven , and his teachings were collected in the and the . .}} Eventually, at the age of about forty-two, he received the patronage of queen Hutaosa and a ruler named , an early adherent of (possibly from according to the ). Zoroaster's teaching about individual judgment, and , the of the body, the , and everlasting life for the reunited soul and body, among other things, became borrowings in the , but they lost the context of the original teaching. According to the tradition, he lived for many years after Vishtaspa's conversion, managed to establish a faithful community, and married three times. His first two wives bore him three sons, Isat Vâstra, Urvatat Nara, and Hvare Chithra, and three daughters, Freni, Thriti, and Pouruchista. His third wife, Hvōvi, was childless. Zoroaster died when he was 77 years and 40 days old. The later Pahlavi sources like , instead claim that an obscure conflict with people led to his death, murdered by a karapan (a priest of the old religion) named Brādrēs. Influences In Islam A number of parallels have been drawn between Zoroastrian teachings and Islam. Such parallels include the evident similarities between and the archangel , praying five times a day, covering one's head during prayer, and the mention of and in the . These may also indicate the vast influence of the on the development of either religion. The , who believed in coincident with Zoroastrians, are also mentioned in the Quran. Muslim scholastic views of a n man (an ) wearing a distinctive cap and face veil, possibly a camel rider or even a priest engaging in a ritual at a , since face veils were used to avoid contaminating the holy fire with breath or saliva; , Italy.}} Like the Greeks of classical antiquity, ic tradition understands Zoroaster to be the founding prophet of the Magians (via Aramaic, Arabic , collective Majusya). The 11th-century Cordoban (Zahiri school) contends that Kitabi "of the Book" cannot apply in light of the Zoroastrian assertion that their books were destroyed by Alexander. Citing the authority of the 8th-century , the 9th- and 10th-century Sunni historian (i.648) reports that Zaradusht bin Isfiman (an adaptation of "Zarathustra Spitama") was an inhabitant of Israel and a servant of one of the disciples of the prophet . According to this tale, Zaradusht defrauded his master, who cursed him, causing him to become leprous (cf. 's servant in Jewish Scripture). The apostate Zaradusht then eventually made his way to (present day Afghanistan) where he converted Bishtasb (i.e. ), who in turn compelled his subjects to adopt the religion of the Magians. Recalling other tradition, al-Tabari (i.681–683) recounts that Zaradusht accompanied a Jewish prophet to Bishtasb/Vishtaspa. Upon their arrival, Zaradusht translated the sage's Hebrew teachings for the king and so convinced him to convert (Tabari also notes that they had previously been ) to the Magian religion. The 12th-century describes the Majusiya into three sects, the Kayumarthiya, the and the Zaradushtiya, among which Al-Shahrastani asserts that only the last of the three were properly followers of Zoroaster. As regards the recognition of a prophet, Zoroaster has said: "They ask you as to how should they recognize a prophet and believe him to be true in what he says; tell them what he knows the others do not, and he shall tell you even what lies hidden in your nature; he shall be able to tell you whatever you ask him and he shall perform such things which others cannot perform." (Namah Shat Vakhshur Zartust, .5–7. 50–54) When the companions of Muhammad, on invading Persia, came in contact with the Zoroastrian people and learned these teachings, they at once came to the conclusion that Zoroaster was really a Divinely inspired prophet. Thus they accorded the same treatment to the Zoroastrian people which they did to other "People of the Book". Though the name of Zoroaster is not mentioned in the Qur'an, still he was regarded as one of those prophets whose names have not been mentioned in the Qur'an, for there is a verse in the Qur'an: "And We did send apostles before thee: there are some of them that We have mentioned to thee and there are others whom We have not mentioned to Thee." (40 : 78). Accordingly, the Muslims treated the founder of Zoroastrianism as a true prophet and believed in his religion as they did in other inspired creeds, and thus according to the prophecy, protected the Zoroastrian religion. James Darmesteter remarked in the translation of : "When Islam assimilated the Zoroastrians to the People of the Book, it evinced a rare historical sense and solved the problem of the origin of the Avesta." (Introduction to Vendidad. p. 69.) Ahmadiyya view The views Zoroaster as a Prophet of Allah and describe the expressions of the all-good Ahura Mazda and evil Ahriman as merely referring to the coexistence of forces of good and evil enabling humans to exercise free will. In Manichaeism considered Zoroaster to be a figure (along with and the ) in a line of prophets of which (216–276) was the culmination. Zoroaster's ethical dualism is—to an extent—incorporated in Mani's doctrine, which viewed the world as being locked in an epic battle between opposing forces of good and evil. Manicheanism also incorporated other elements of Zoroastrian tradition, particularly the names of supernatural beings; however, many of these other Zoroastrian elements are either not part of Zoroaster's own teachings or are used quite differently from how they are used in Zoroastrianism. In the Bahá'í Faith Zoroaster appears in the as a " ", one of a line of prophets who have progressively revealed the Word of God to a gradually maturing humanity. Zoroaster thus shares an exalted station with , , , , , the , and the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, . , the head of the Bahá'í Faith in the first half of the 20th century, saw Bahá'u'lláh as the fulfillment of a post-Sassanid Zoroastrian prophecy that saw a return of Sassanid emperor : Shoghi Effendi also stated that Zoroaster lived roughly 1000 years before Jesus. Philosophy by , 1509, showing Zoroaster (left, with star-studded globe).}} In the Gathas, Zoroaster sees the human condition as the mental struggle between and druj. The cardinal concept of aša—which is highly nuanced and only vaguely translatable—is at the foundation of all Zoroastrian doctrine, including that of (who is aša), creation (that is aša), existence (that is aša), and as the condition for free will. The purpose of humankind, like that of all other creation, is to sustain and align itself to aša. For humankind, this occurs through active ethical participation in life, ritual, and the exercise of constructive/good thoughts, words and deeds. Elements of Zoroastrian philosophy entered the West through their influence on and and have been identified as one of the key early events in the development of philosophy. Among the classic Greek philosophers, is often referred to as inspired by Zoroaster's thinking. In 2005, the Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy ranked Zarathustra as first in the chronology of philosophers. Zarathustra's impact lingers today due in part to the system of religious ethics he founded called Mazdayasna. The word Mazdayasna is and is translated as "Worship of Wisdom/Mazda" in English. The encyclopedia claims that Zoroastrians later educated the Greeks who, starting with , used a similar term, philosophy, or "love of wisdom" to describe the search for ultimate truth. Zoroaster emphasized the freedom of the individual to choose right or wrong and individual responsibility for one's deeds. This personal choice to accept and shun druj is one's own decision and not a dictate of Ahura Mazda. For Zoroaster, by thinking good thoughts, saying good words, and doing good deeds (e.g. assisting the needy, doing good works, or conducting good rituals a sacrifice) we increase in the world and in ourselves, celebrate the divine order, and we come a step closer on the everlasting road to . Thus, we are not the slaves or servants of Ahura Mazda, but we can make a personal choice to be co-workers, thereby perfecting the world as saoshyants ("world-perfecters") and ourselves and eventually achieve the status of a Ashavan ("master of Asha"). Iconography Although a few recent depictions of Zoroaster show him performing some deed of legend, in general the portrayals merely present him in (which are also worn by present-day Zoroastrian priests). He often is seen holding a (Avestan; barsom), which is generally considered to be another symbol of priesthood, or with a book in hand, which may be interpreted to be the . Alternatively, he appears with a mace, the varza—usually stylized as a steel rod crowned by a bull's head—that priests carry in their installation ceremony. In other depictions he appears with a raised hand and thoughtfully lifted finger, as if to make a point. Zoroaster is rarely depicted as looking directly at the viewer; instead, he appears to be looking slightly upwards, as if beseeching. Zoroaster is almost always depicted with a beard, this along with other factors bearing similarities to 19th-century portraits of . A common variant of the Zoroaster images derives from a Sassanid-era rock-face carving. In this depiction at , a figure is seen to preside over the coronation of or . The figure is standing on a lotus, with a baresman in hand and with a around his head. Until the 1920s, this figure was commonly thought to be a depiction of Zoroaster, but in recent years is more commonly interpreted to be a depiction of . Among the most famous of the European depictions of Zoroaster is that of the figure in 's 1509 . In it, Zoroaster and are having a discussion in the lower right corner. The prophet is holding a star-studded globe. File:Zoroaster 1.jpg|Zoroastrian devotional art depicting the religion's founder with white clothing and a long beard File:ClavisArtis.MS.Verginelli-Rota.V1.003r.jpg|Depiction of Zoroaster in , an alchemy manuscript published in Germany in the late 17th or early 18th century and attributed to Zoroaster File:An Image from Zarathustra.jpg|An image of Zoroaster on display at the (Zoroastrian ) in , , Iran File:An image of Zoroaster on mirrored etched glass at the Zoroastrian fire temple, Taft, Iran.jpg|An image of Zoroaster on mirrored etched glass at the Zoroastrian fire temple in , Iran Western civilization In classical antiquity }} The Greeks—in the of the term—had an understanding of Zoroaster as expressed by , , and that saw him, at the core, to be the "prophet and founder of the religion of the Iranian peoples," Beck notes that "the rest was mostly fantasy". Zoroaster was set in the ancient past, six to seven millennia before the Common Era, and was described as a king of or a n (or teacher of Babylonians), and with a biography typical of a sage, i.e. having a mission preceded by ascetic withdrawal and enlightenment. However, at first mentioned in the context of dualism, in , Plutarch presents Zoroaster as "Zaratras," not realizing the two to be the same, and he is described as a "teacher of ". Zoroaster has also been described as a sorcerer-astrologer the creator of both magic and astrology. Deriving from that image, and reinforcing it, was a "mass of literature" attributed to him and that circulated the world from the 3rd century BCE to the end of antiquity and beyond. The language of that literature was predominantly , though at one stage or another various parts of it passed through , , or . Its ethos and cultural matrix was likewise Hellenistic, and "the ascription of literature to sources beyond that political, cultural and temporal framework represents a bid for authority and a fount of legitimizing "alien wisdom". Zoroaster and the magi did not compose it, but their names sanctioned it." The attributions to "exotic" names (not restricted to magians) conferred an "authority of a remote and revelatory wisdom." Among the named works attributed to "Zoroaster" is a treatise On Nature (Peri physeos), which appears to have originally constituted four volumes (i.e. papyrus rolls). The framework is a retelling of Plato's , with Zoroaster taking the place of the original hero. While imagined listening to Zoroaster's discourse, On Nature has the sun in middle position, which was how it was understood in the 3rd century. In contrast, Plato's 4th-century BCE version had the sun in second place above the moon. Ironically, accused of plagiarizing Zoroaster, and wrote a text titled Zoroaster based on his perception of "Zoroastrian" philosophy, in order to express his disagreement with Plato on . With respect to substance and content in On Nature only two facts are known: that it was crammed with astrological speculations, and that was mentioned by name and that she was in the air. names Zoroaster as the inventor of magic ( 30.2.3). "However, a principle of the division of labor appears to have spared Zoroaster most of the responsibility for introducing the dark arts to the Greek and Roman worlds." That "dubious honor" went to the "fabulous magus, , to whom most of the pseudepigraphic magical literature was attributed." Although Pliny calls him the inventor of magic, the Roman does not provide a "magician's persona" for him. Moreover, the little "magical" teaching that is ascribed to Zoroaster is actually very late, with the very earliest example being from the 14th century. Association with astrology according to Roger Beck, were based on his ian origin, and Zoroaster's Greek name was identified at first with star-worshiping (astrothytes "star sacrificer") and, with the Zo-'', even as the ''living star. Later, an even more elaborate mythoetymology evolved: Zoroaster died by the living (zo-'') flux (''ro-'') of fire from the star (''astr-'') which he himself had invoked, and even, that the stars killed him in revenge for having been restrained by him. The alternate Greek name for Zoroaster was Zaratras or Zaratas/Zaradas/Zaratos. considered the mathematicians to have studied with Zoroaster in Babylonia. , in ''On the Months, attributes the creation of the seven-day week to "the Babylonians in the circle of Zoroaster and ," and who did so because there were seven planets. The 's chapter on astronomia notes that the Babylonians learned their astrology from Zoroaster. , in Mennipus 6, reports deciding to journey to Babylon "to ask one of the magi, Zoroaster's disciples and successors," for their opinion. While the division along the lines of Zoroaster/astrology and Ostanes/magic is an "oversimplification, the descriptions do at least indicate what the works are not"; they were not expressions of Zoroastrian doctrine, they were not even expressions of what the Greeks and Romans "imagined the doctrines of Zoroastrianism to have been" in the original. The assembled fragments do not even show noticeable commonality of outlook and teaching among the several authors who wrote under each name. Almost all Zoroastrian pseudepigrapha is now lost, and of the attested texts—with only one exception—only fragments have survived. Pliny's 2nd- or 3rd-century attribution of "two million lines" to Zoroaster suggest that (even if exaggeration and duplicates are taken into consideration) a formidable pseudepigraphic corpus once existed at the . This corpus can safely be assumed to be pseudepigrapha because no one before Pliny refers to literature by "Zoroaster", and on the authority of the 2nd-century and from a 6th-century commentator on Aristotle it is known that the acquisition policies of well-endowed royal libraries created a market for fabricating manuscripts of famous and ancient authors. The exception to the fragmentary evidence (i.e. reiteration of passages in works of other authors) is a complete Coptic titled Zostrianos (after the first-person narrator) discovered in the in 1945. A three-line cryptogram in the colophones following the 131-page treatise identify the work as "words of truth of Zostrianos. God of Truth [logos]. Words of Zoroaster." Invoking a "God of Truth" might seem Zoroastrian, but there is otherwise "nothing noticeably Zoroastrian" about the text and "in content, style, ethos and intention, its affinities are entirely with the congeners among the tractates." Another work circulating under the name of "Zoroaster" was the Asteroskopita (or Apotelesmatika), and which ran to five volumes (i.e. papyrus rolls). The title and fragments suggest that it was an astrological handbook, "albeit a very varied one, for the making of predictions." A third text attributed to Zoroaster is On Virtue of Stones (Peri lithon timion), of which nothing is known other than its extent (one volume) and that pseudo-Zoroaster sang it (from which Cumont and Bidez conclude that it was in verse). Numerous other fragments preserved in the works of other authors are attributed to "Zoroaster," but the titles of those books are not mentioned. These pseudepigraphic texts aside, some authors did draw on a few genuinely Zoroastrian ideas. The Oracles of Hystaspes, by " ", another prominent magian pseudo-author, is a set of prophecies distinguished from other Zoroastrian pseudepigrapha in that it draws on real Zoroastrian sources. Some allusions are more difficult to assess: in the same text that attributes the invention of magic to Zoroaster, Pliny states that Zoroaster laughed on the day of his birth, although in an earlier place, Pliny had sworn in the name of that no child had ever done so before the 40th day from his birth. This notion of Zoroaster's laughter (like that of "two million verses" ) also appears in the 9th– to 11th-century texts of genuine Zoroastrian tradition, and for a time it was assumed that the origin of those myths lay with indigenous sources. Pliny also records that Zoroaster's head had pulsated so strongly that it repelled the hand when laid upon it, a presage of his future wisdom. The Iranians were however just as familiar with the Greek writers, and the provenance of other descriptions are clear. For instance, Plutarch's description of its dualistic theologies reads thus: "Others call the better of these a god and his rival a daemon, as, for example, Zoroaster the Magus, who lived, so they record, five thousand years before the siege of Troy. He used to call the one and the other ". In the post-classical era Zoroaster was known as a sage, magician, and miracle-worker in post-Classical Western culture. Although almost nothing was known of his ideas until the late 18th century, his name was already associated with lost ancient wisdom. Statements by Sir as early as 1643 are the earliest recorded references to Zoroaster in the English language. writers such as promoted research into Zoroastrianism in the belief that it was a form of rational , preferable to . Zoroaster was the subject of the 1749 opera, , by . With the translation of the by , Western scholarship of Zoroastrianism began. An early 19th-century representation of Zoroaster derived from the portrait of a figure that appears in a 4th-century sculpture at in south-western Iran. In 's novel (1819), the mage Prosper Alpanus states that Professor Zoroaster was his teacher. In his seminal work (1885) the philosopher uses the native Iranian name Zarathustra which has a significant meaning as he had used the familiar Greek-Latin name in his earlier works. It is believed that Nietzsche invents a characterization of Zarathustra as the mouthpiece for Nietzsche's own ideas against . 's Opus 30, inspired by Nietzsche's book, is also called . Irish poet (1865–1939) and his wife reportedly claimed to have contacted Zoroaster through " ". A sculpture of Zoroaster by , representing ancient Persian judicial wisdom and dating to 1896, towers over the at East 25th Street and Madison Avenue in . A sculpture of Zoroaster appears with other prominent religious figures on the south side of the exterior of on the campus of the . The protagonist and narrator of 's 1981 novel is described to be the grandson of Zoroaster. , the mythic hero in 's 2011 dramatic novel , joins forces with Shakespeare's . Notes References Category:Religion